The Sleepwalkers - How Europe went to war in 1914

I am always amazed at how decisions taken by a handful of powerful figures can alter the course of humanity. The story of how the First World War started in 1914 fits perfectly in the setting of the early 20^th century Europe, when great monarchies struggle to manage vast empires. The Austro-Hungary Empire appears as the main character in the story, with the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie on the 28^th June 1914 igniting a diplomatic and military mobilization. Another important role is played by Serbia, which foster the terrorist movement for the unification of all Serbs and was responsible for the assassination.

Christopher Clark brilliantly presents the course of events that lead to the murder of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie Chotek, while detailing the background conflict between alliances forged in the pre-war wars. Great Britain’s alliance with both France and Russia allowed her to maintain vast colonies in Asia and Africa, while not endangering its North African stronghold from France and Germany military advances. On the other hand, the Russian Empire wanted to obtain control in the Bosporus straight and also suzerainty over the newly formed Balkan states: Bulgaria and the Kingdom of Serbia. Germany was advancing both technologically and economically in the world stage and this enabled the empire to provide assistance for African States in the independence struggle against France and Great Britain. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was ethnically too vast to be united and also employed a slow bureaucratic system that would prove to be a premise of its demise.

When you read about these economic and political subtleties, you cannot stop and be amazed with the way in which the emperor and kings played such an important role in both maintain peace and also engaging in war. Austrian-Hungarian Empire was portrayed by the international press as an oppressor of the newly independent Balkan states and as a dying empire, with Germany as the main supporter for its external policies.

The book is a monumental work on how the First World War broke in the summer of 1914, and after reading it I gained more knowledge about the intricate political work of empires and states. The external affair cabinets were powerful in dictating directions for alliances and the influence with which the ministers exerted this is astounding. Even though I cannot claim to understand all the reasons for which Europe engaged in a global war, it is clear that all the key decisional figures were ready and anticipating the war as necessary for the establishment of new order. Looking back through the lenses offered by knowing past events it is hard to imagine how such a war was necessary. Sadly it happened and was the deadliest conflict in human history. 100 years later it is necessary to understand how WW1 started, in the hope of preventing such catastrophes from ever happening again. 

Wine: A Cultural History

Having a little more time after finishing my dissertation studies I decided to start cultivating my love of wine and what better way to start than reading about its history? And what a history wine has! It starts sometime between 8500 BC at the earliest and 4000 BC at the latest (p.11). The book is perfect for afternoon readings, especially if you have a glass of nice wine to accompany it.

John Varriano carefully selects historical sources to carry you through the journey of wine making and consumption, from ancient times to modern day times. It is beautifully illustrated with works of art: sculpture, pottery, paintings and lithographs, all thoughtfully inserted to make the reading more enjoyable. It made me aware of the importance of wine in all rituals and aspects of life, in ancient Greece, where the drank wine mixed with water, than in ancient Rome, where members of high class used to feast on wine taking it as a reminder of momento mori and carpe diem, whilst also encouraging the people to drink it for medicinal purposes. Often time throughout the history wine was used to cure various ailments both topically and internally.

Galen’s account of wine usage for treating wounds is one of the most vast and attentively constructed medical books of those times, widely used until late 17^th century, describes mixes of herbs with wine and even usage of wine as a disinfectant for open wounds. It really made me think twice about what natural medicine can do in order to cure diseases, especially those linked to mineral deficiencies.

The story of wine and how it became widely enjoyed by all people also describes the first wine with controlled denomination, Château Haut-Brion – founded by Jean de Pontac- 1550, to be named by the region where it was made. Wine continued to be enjoyed by members of high class, royalties and popes (Châteauneuf “Vin du Pape” – 1316-1334) (p. 103). The pleasure and rituals associated with wine are depicted beautifully in art. Works of art: painting of Michellangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Bellini and Titian, Rubens, Poussins, Vermeer, and sculptures and lithographs embroider the story and make you wish you could see them all first hand.

Modern time abounds with pictures, descriptions and studies all hailing the benefits of moderate wine consumption. Starting with wine’s effect as a means of aiding people suffering from minor social inhibition and continuing with recent studies suggesting that by drinking wine we attain longevity and better health, the list is vast. It makes you wonder why with every meal you don’t appreciate the curative and pleasurable effects of moderate wine consumption. It definitely makes me want to know more about wine and cultivate my taste so I can enjoy both the health benefits and also the small pleasures of life.  

“De ce este Romania altfel?” (Why is Romania different?)

Lucian Boia’s historical account on the causes and political context that influenced current day Romania is insightful and well-written. Browsing through topics, this essay is definitely a piece of history that especially Romanians must be aware. 

It starts with the Dacians - an ancient tribe that was attested here before the Roman Empire expansion in the first and second century, continues with the Great Migration of the Huns and the political and economic reign of the Otoman Empire. Throughout his discourse one can feel that the great things that make up the Romanians: adaptability, cunning determination to stick to their land, and industrious spirit were exactly the key pieces which together kept Romanians on a different route than its neighbouring countries. Boia refutes the claims that only the Communist Regime had a detrimental effect on the modernization of Romania, or that the socialist administration is solely to blame for a lack of political reorganization following the 1989 Revolution. One stringent need that was never prioritized by any Administration, ancient or current, is Education. This is precisely the reason why so many good ideas felt short of achieving success due to a chronic deficit in middle and long term vision of development. Without a vision for a country or without a healthy class a country can never escape some ancient frustration or achieve to stand at the same table with other European countries. Even though Romania joined the European Union in 2007, only this year were the bans of free access to labour market lifted. This is in striking contrast with other countries that have previously joined EU, namely Hungary and Poland. What makes Romania’s case different?

In Lucian Boia’s opinion a key element rises to prominence: the lack of intellectual elite that could question tyrannical decision and set an example for the lower working classes. But where and how could Romania forge an intellectual class when across all time only the powerful minorities (Hungarians, Germans, Jews, and Italians) had access to schools? It is paradoxical to think that under the Socialist Regime there were more Schools and Universities built than previously and yet after the Regime fell they valued little to the majority of people. What is even more baffling is the fact that nowadays there is an inflation of university degrees on the job markets in Romania, yet the Education is not valued. We have come to be a nation of poorly educated university degree holders. Most of the talented young people, bright individuals, choose to study abroad and never come back, as to come back and work in a university lab resembles sometimes the titanic work done by the scientist in medieval times. This is a powerful example of wasted potential and a condemnation to an export of intellectual power. Moreover the curse of Romania’s wasted potential doesn’t stop with the small percentage of the elite. On the contrary, the majority of those that lack education are deemed to work as unskilled workers and migrate to countries with better minimum wage (Spain, Italy, France, Germany, Great Britain, just to name a few), leaving in the country those that could not go (children and elders) or those that chose to stay for various other reasons.

The picture is grim: a country lacking long-term political/ administrative vision, which is readily opened to emulate the Western Societies, but deemed to be seen as an exploitable country for both its people and resources. Until Romanian Government prioritizes Education, Health and Agricultural Economy things are only bound to become worse.

In the eve of a new electoral mandate I am left with a century old question: “And me, whom shall I cast my vote?!?” (Paraphrasing I.L. Caragiale, 1884).